Simple Fluorescence Labeling Method Enables Detection of Intracellular Distribution and Expression Level of Retinoid X Receptors.

There is no straightforward method to visualize the intracellular distribution of nuclear receptors, such as retinoid X receptors (RXRs), which are trafficked between the cytosol and nucleus. Here, in order to develop a simple fluorescence labeling method for RXRs, we designed and synthesized compound 4, consisting of an RXR-selective antagonist, CBTF-EE (2), linked via an ether bond to the fluorophore nitrobenzoxadiazole (NBD). Compound 4 is nonfluorescent, but the ether bond (-O-NBD) reacts with biothiols such as cysteine and homocysteine to generate a thioether (-S-NBD), followed by intramolecular Smiles rearrangement with an amino group such as that of lysine to form a fluorescent secondary amine (-NH-NBD) adjacent to the binding site. Fluorescence microscopy of intact or RXR-overexpressing MCF-7 cells after incubation with 4 enabled us to visualize RXR expression as well as nuclear transfer of RXR induced by the agonist bexarotene (1).

Clinical outcomes of ST elevation myocardial infarction patients without standard modifiable risk factors.

BACKGROUND: Standard modifiable cardiovascular risk factors (SMuRFs; hypertension, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, and smoking) are widely recognized as risk factors for coronary artery disease. However, the associations between absence of SMuRFs and long-term clinical outcomes in ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients are unclear. METHODS: Consecutive STEMI patients who underwent primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) between 1999 and 2015 were retrospectively analyzed. The primary endpoint was up to 5-year all-cause mortality. Clinical characteristics and outcomes were compared between patients with at least one of the SMuRFs and those without any SMuRFs. RESULTS: Of 1963 STEMI patients, 126 (6.4 %) did not have any SMuRFs. Patients without SMuRFs were significantly older, had lower body mass index, and were more likely to be female. During a median follow-up period of 4.9 years, the cumulative incidence of death was significantly higher in patients without SMuRFs than in those with SMuRFs (log-rank p < 0.0001). Landmark analysis showed that patients without SMuRFs had higher mortality within 30 days of STEMI onset (log-rank p = 0.0045) and >30 days after STEMI onset (log-rank p = 0.0004). Multivariable Cox hazards analysis showed that absence of SMuRFs was associated with a higher risk of mortality (hazard ratio, 1.59; 95 % confidence interval, 1.14-2.21; p = 0.006). CONCLUSIONS: Of STEMI patients undergoing primary PCI, patients without any SMuRFs had higher mortality than those with at least one of the SMuRFs. Patients without any SMuRFs have a poor prognosis and require more attention.

Direct evaluation of polarity of the ligand binding pocket in retinoid X receptor using a fluorescent solvatochromic agonist.

High selectivity of small-molecule drug candidates for their target molecule is important to minimize potential side effects. One factor that contributes to the selectivity is the internal polarity of the ligand-binding pocket (LBP) in the target molecule, but this is difficult to measure. Here, we first confirmed that the retinoid X receptor (RXR) agonist 6-(ethyl(1-isobutyl-2-oxo-4-(trifluoromethyl)-1,2-dihydroquinolin-7-yl)amino)nicotinic acid (NEt-iFQ, 1) exhibits fluorescence solvatochromism, i.e., its Stokes shift depends on the polarity of the solvent, and then we utilized this property to directly measure the internal polarity of the RXRα-LBP. The Stokes shift of 1 when bound to the RXRα-LBP corresponded to that of 1 in chloroform solution. This finding is expected to be helpful for designing RXR-selective ligands. A similar approach should be appliable to evaluate the internal polarity of the LBPs of other receptors.

A Case Report of Mixed-type Dyspnoea Diagnosed via Non-invasive and Invasive Cardiopulmonary Exercise Tests.

A gas exchange analysis with the cardiopulmonary exercise test is effective in discriminating non-cardiogenic components of limited exercise tolerance and is important for use in combination with the diastolic stress test. An 80-year-old woman with progressive exertional dyspnoea, hypertension, and untreated bronchial asthma was diagnosed with heart failure with a preserved ejection fraction by invasive testing. Diuretics were initiated, which resulted in partial symptom improvement. A subsequent non-invasive test revealed a reduced breathing reserve, suggesting exertional dyspnoea complications linked to lung disease. Bronchodilators were administered, which further improved the symptoms.

Internal organ dose rate conversion coefficients of Japanese macaques to 134Cs,137Cs and 131I†.

The purpose of this study was to estimate the internal dose of radiation in Japanese macaques (aka Nihonzaru or snow monkey) due to the Fukushima nuclear power plant accident. Images of a male Japanese macaque weighing ~10 kg were acquired using a multi-slice computed tomography (CT) scan with a 64-row segment detector. The CT images were used to create voxel phantoms of the bones, bone marrow, brain, eyes, heart, lungs, stomach, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, intestines, bladder, testes, thyroid and miscellaneous tissue. The Particle and Heavy Ion Transport System (PHITS) Monte Carlo code was used to calculate the internal exposure rate conversion factors for 134Cs, 137Cs and 131I isotopes for the created voxel phantoms with a statistical precision higher than 1%. The PHITS-calculated energy deposits were compared with those for rhesus monkeys. The results showed that the fractions of energy deposits for ß-radiation in different organs were almost identical between the two species. For γ-radiation, there was excellent agreement in the self-absorption rate with the approximate curve of the Japanese macaque, with an average deviation of 2%. The maximum deviation of 12% was for the kidney, which has two organs, so the error with the approximate curve is slightly larger due to the energy loss created between organs.

Characterization and Interconversion of Two Crystal Forms of NEt-3IB, a Retinoid X Receptor Agonist.

Retinoid X receptor (RXR) agonist NEt-3IB (1) is a candidate for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and we have established a process synthesis of 1 in which the final product is obtained by recrystallization from 70% EtOH. However, we found that there are two crystal forms of 1. Here, to characterize and clarify the relationship between them, we conducted thermogravimetry, powder X-ray diffraction, and single crystal X-ray diffraction. The crystal forms were identified as the monohydrate form I and anhydrate form II. The crystal form I, obtained as a stable form by our established synthesis, was easily dehydrated simply by drying to afford the form II', which was similar to the crystal form II obtained by recrystallization from anhydrous EtOH. Storage of the form II' in air regenerated the form I. The molecular conformations of 1 in the crystals of the two forms are similar, and they can be reversibly interconverted. The solubility of the monohydrate form I and anhydrate form II was examined and the former was found to be less soluble than the latter. Thus, form I may be superior to form II for targeting IBD, because of higher delivery to the lower gastrointestinal tract and reduction of systemic side effects associated with lower absorption due to lower water solubility.

Structural characterization of 1,3-bis-tert-butyl monocyclic benzene derivatives with agonistic activity towards retinoid X receptor alpha.

Retinoid X receptor alpha (RXRα) plays pivotal roles in multiple biological processes, but limited information is available on the structural features of chemicals that show low affinity for RXRα, but nevertheless cause significant activation, though these may represent a human health hazard. We recently discovered that several industrial chemicals having 1,3-bis-tert-butylbenzene as a common chemical structure exhibit agonistic activity towards rat RXRα. In this study, we explored the structure-activity relationship of 1,3-bis-tert-butyl monocyclic benzene derivatives for RXRα activation by means of in vitro and in silico analyses. The results indicate that a bulky substituent at the 5-position is favorable for agonistic activity towards human RXRα. Since 1,3-bis-tert-butyl monocyclic benzene derivatives with bulky hydrophobic moieties differ structurally from known RXRα ligands such as 9-cis-retinoic acid and bexarotene, our findings may be helpful for the development of structural alerts in the safety evaluation of industrial chemicals for RXRα-based toxicity to living organisms.

Changing patterns of pulmonary abnormalities in rheumatoid arthritis.

BACKGROUND: As a first step in identifying the developmental pathways of pulmonary abnormalities in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), we sought to determine the existing and changing patterns of pulmonary abnormalities. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study of consecutive patients with RA who underwent high-resolution computed tomography before and during biologic therapy. The presence of 20 pulmonary abnormalities and the changes in those abnormalities were recorded. Patterns of pre-existing and changing abnormalities were examined via cluster analysis, and their relationship was also assessed using the Kaplan-Meier method and log-rank test. RESULTS: A total of 208 subjects were included. Pulmonary abnormalities were observed in 70% of patients: 39% had interstitial lung disease, and 55% had airway disease (AD). Several different pulmonary abnormalities were commonly found to co-exist in several patterns in the same patient. In most patients with pulmonary abnormalities, AD was present alone or in combination with other abnormalities. During the observation period (mean 3.2 years), 172 pulmonary abnormalities had changed in 91 patients: 115 pulmonary abnormalities newly emerged, whereas 42 worsened and 25 demonstrated improvement. Pulmonary abnormalities changed in several patterns. Correlations were observed between pre-existing and new/worsening abnormalities at individual and regional levels, such as new ground-glass opacity (GGO) and pre-existing AD, small nodular patterns, and honeycombing. AD was a possible initial abnormality. CONCLUSIONS: Pulmonary abnormalities occurred and changed in several patterns, which suggests the existence of developmental pathways of pulmonary abnormalities. AD may play an important role in the development of these abnormalities, including GGO.

Analysis of absorption-enhancing mechanisms for combinatorial use of spermine with sodium taurocholate in Caco-2 cells.

Previously, we reported that the combined use of spermine (SPM) and sodium taurocholate (STC) (SPM-STC) significantly improves the oral absorption of rebamipide (BCS class IV) and pulmonary absorption of interferon-α without any harmful histopathological changes in the gastrointestinal tract and lungs, respectively. In the present study, we examined the effect of SPM-STC on the transport of fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled dextrans (FDs) across Caco-2 cell monolayers and attempted to clarify the mechanisms underlying the transport enhancement caused by SPM-STC. SPM-STC were found to significantly enhance the transport of FDs, while the treatment with SPM-STC was not harmful, and the decrease in transepithelial electrical resistance was transient and reversible. The voltage-clamp study clearly indicated that the opening of the paracellular route could be mainly responsible for the enhanced transport of FD-4. As for the mechanisms, it was found that SPM-STC caused a significant increase in membrane fluidity, which would lead to the enhanced transport of small-molecule drugs such as rebamipide. Since SPM-STC increased intracellular Ca2+ via Ca2+ uptake through Ca2+ channels and Ca2+ release from the endoplasmic reticulum stimulated by the IP3 pathway, the subsequent possible activation of the MLCK signaling pathway would have led to the contraction of the actin-myosin ring. The rearrangement of tight junction-constituting proteins induced through the MAPK pathway has also been suggested as a possible mechanism for opening tight junctions. Claudin-4, a key protein constituting the tight junction, merged with F-actin along with the plasma membrane, was significantly decreased, which would be at least partial structural evidence for the tight-junction opening.

Teratogenicity and Fetal-Transfer Assessment of the Retinoid X Receptor Agonist Bexarotene.

Bexarotene, a retinoid X receptor (RXR) agonist, is used to treat cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, and drug repositioning research has also been reported, despite warnings of teratogenicity. However, fetal transfer of bexarotene and its effect on rat fetal bone formation have not been examined. In this study, we conducted a detailed teratogenicity and fetal transferability assessment of bexarotene in rats. Repeated administration of bexarotene during pregnancy caused marked fetal atrophy and bone dysplasia. Although fetal transfer was not detectable by dynamic imaging of [11C]bexarotene by means of positron emission tomography, transfer to the fetus was confirmed by using a gamma counter. Similar levels were found in mother and fetus. In addition, we found that bexarotene was accumulated in the placenta. These findings will be useful for the toxicity assessment of bexarotene as well as for drug discovery research targeting RXR agonists, which are expected to have therapeutic effects in various diseases.

Identification of a Vitamin-D Receptor Antagonist, MeTC7, which Inhibits the Growth of Xenograft and Transgenic Tumors In Vivo.

Vitamin-D receptor (VDR) mRNA is overexpressed in neuroblastoma and carcinomas of lung, pancreas, and ovaries and predicts poor prognoses. VDR antagonists may be able to inhibit tumors that overexpress VDR. However, the current antagonists are arduous to synthesize and are only partial antagonists, limiting their use. Here, we show that the VDR antagonist MeTC7 (5), which can be synthesized from 7-dehydrocholesterol (6) in two steps, inhibits VDR selectively, suppresses the viability of cancer cell-lines, and reduces the growth of the spontaneous transgenic TH-MYCN neuroblastoma and xenografts in vivo. The VDR selectivity of 5 against RXRα and PPAR-γ was confirmed, and docking studies using VDR-LBD indicated that 5 induces major changes in the binding motifs, which potentially result in VDR antagonistic effects. These data highlight the therapeutic benefits of targeting VDR for the treatment of malignancies and demonstrate the creation of selective VDR antagonists that are easy to synthesize.

Development of Scaled-Up Synthetic Method for Retinoid X Receptor Agonist NEt-3IB Contributing to Sustainable Development Goals.

Small-molecular drugs, which are generally inexpensive compared with biopharmaceuticals and can often be taken orally, may contribute to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted by the United Nations. We previously reported the retinoid X receptor (RXR) agonist 4-(ethyl(3-isobutoxy-4-isopropylphenyl)amino)benzoic acid (NEt-3IB, 1) as a small-molecular drug candidate to replace biopharmaceuticals for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. The previous synthetic method to 1 required a large amount of organic solvent and extensive purification. In line with the SDGs, we aimed to develop an environmentally friendly, inexpensive method for the large-scale synthesis of 1. The developed method requires only a hydrophobic ether and EtOH as reaction and extraction solvents. The product was purified by recrystallization twice to afford 99% pure 1 at 100 mmol scale in about 30% yield. The optimized process showed a 35-fold improvement of the E-factor (an index of environmental impact) compared to the original method. This work, which changes the solvent used to environmentally preferable ones based on the existing synthetic method for 1, illustrates how synthetic methods for small-molecular drugs can be adapted and improved to contribute to the SDGs.

A Retinoid X Receptor Agonist Directed to the Large Intestine Ameliorates T-Cell-Mediated Colitis in Mice.

Retinoid X receptor (RXR) is a nuclear receptor that heterodimerizes with several nuclear receptors, integrating ligand-mediated signals across the heterodimers. Synthetic RXR agonists have been developed to cure certain inflammatory diseases, including inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs). However, pre-existing RXR agonists, which are lipophilic and readily absorbed in the upper intestine, cause considerable adverse effects such as hepatomegaly, hyperlipidemia, and hypothyroidism. To minimize these adverse effects, we have developed an RXR agonist, NEt-3IB, which has lipophilic and thus poorly absorptive properties. In this study, we evaluated the effects of NEt-3IB in an experimental murine colitis model induced through the adoptive transfer of CD45RBhighCD4+ T cells. Pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated that the major portion of NEt-3IB was successfully delivered to the large intestine after oral administration. Notably, NEt-3IB treatment suppressed the development of T cell-mediated chronic colitis, as indicated by improvement of wasting symptoms, inflammatory infiltration, and mucosal hyperplasia. The protective effect of NEt-3IB was mediated by the suppression of IFN-γ-producing Th1 cell expansion in the colon. In conclusion, NEt-3IB, a large intestine-directed RXR agonist, is a promising drug candidate for IBDs.

Creation of Fluorescent RXR Antagonists Based on CBTF-EE and Application to a Fluorescence Polarization Binding Assay.

Retinoid X receptor (RXR) ligands often bind in modes in which the carboxy group forms a hydrogen bond inside the ligand-binding pocket (LBP). However, our previously reported RXR antagonist, CBTF-EE (4a), binds with its carboxy group directed outside the LBP and its alkoxy side chain located inside the LBP. Here, we examined the binding modes of 4b and 4c bearing a nitrobenzoxadiazole (NBD) or boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY) fluorophore, respectively, at the end of the alkoxy chain of 4a. Both compounds function as RXR antagonists. 4c, but not 4b, was available for a fluorescence polarization binding assay, indicating that rotation of BODIPY, but not NBD, is restricted in the bound state. The fluorescence findings, supported by docking simulations, suggest the fluorophores are located outside the LBP, so that the binding mode of 4b and 4c is different from that of 4a. The assay results were highly correlated with those of a [3H]9-cis-retinoic acid assay.

In Vivo Receptor Visualization and Evaluation of Receptor Occupancy with Positron Emission Tomography.

Positron emission tomography (PET) is useful for noninvasive in vivo visualization of disease-related receptors, for evaluation of receptor occupancy to determine an appropriate drug dosage, and for proof-of-concept of drug candidates in translational research. For these purposes, the specificity of the PET tracer for the target receptor is critical. Here, we review work in this area, focusing on the chemical structures of reported PET tracers, their Ki/Kd values, and the physical properties relevant to target receptor selectivity. Among these physical properties, such as cLogP, cLogD, molecular weight, topological polar surface area, number of hydrogen bond donors, and pKa, we focus especially on LogD and LogP as important physical properties that can be easily compared across a range of studies. We discuss the success of PET tracers in evaluating receptor occupancy and consider likely future developments in the field.

Convenient Retinoid X Receptor Binding Assay Based on Fluorescence Change of the Antagonist NEt-C343.

Retinoid X receptor (RXR) modulators (rexinoids) are considered to have therapeutic potential for multiple diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. To overcome various disadvantages of prior screening methods, we previously developed an RXR binding assay using a fluorescent RXR ligand, CU-6PMN (4). However, this ligand binds not only at the ligand-binding domain (LBD) but also at the dimer-dimer interface of hRXRα. Here, we present a new fluorescent RXR antagonist 6-[N-ethyl-N-(5-isobutoxy-4-isopropyl-2-(11-oxo-2,3,6,7-tetrahydro-1H,5H,11H-pyrano[2,3-f]pyrido[3,2,1-ij]quinoline-10-carboxamido)phenyl)amino]nicotinic acid (NEt-C343, 7), which emits strong fluorescence only when bound to the RXR-LBD. It allows us to perform a rapid, simple, and nonhazardous binding assay that does not require bound/free separation and uses a standard plate reader. The obtained Ki values of known compounds were correlated with the Ki values obtained using the standard [3H]9cis-retinoic acid assay. This assay should be useful for drug discovery as well as for research on endocrine disruptors, functional foods, and natural products.

Discovery of a "Gatekeeper" Antagonist that Blocks Entry Pathway to Retinoid X Receptors (RXRs) without Allosteric Ligand Inhibition in Permissive RXR Heterodimers.

Retinoid X receptor (RXR) heterodimers such as PPAR/RXR, LXR/RXR, and FXR/RXR can be activated by RXR agonists alone and are therefore designated as permissive. Similarly, existing RXR antagonists show allosteric antagonism toward partner receptor agonists in these permissive RXR heterodimers. Here, we show 1-(3-(2-ethoxyethoxy)-5,5,8,8-tetramethyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)-2-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-benzo[d]imidazole-5-carboxylic acid (14, CBTF-EE) as the first RXR antagonist that does not show allosteric inhibition in permissive RXR heterodimers. This compound was designed based on the hypothesis that RXR antagonists that do not induce conformational changes of RXR would not exhibit such allosteric inhibition. CD spectra and X-ray co-crystallography of the complex of 14 and the RXR ligand binding domain (LBD) confirmed that 14 does not change the conformation of hRXR-LBD. The X-ray structure analysis revealed that 14 binds at the entrance of the ligand binding pocket (LBP), blocking access to the LBP and thus serving as a "gatekeeper".

Fluorescence properties of retinoid X receptor antagonist NEt-SB.

Ligands of retinoid X receptors (RXRs) are effective against various diseases, so there is a need for efficient screening methods to discover new ligands. Existing screening methods are complex and time-consuming, and a simple fluorescence assay would be highly desirable. Here, we focused on NEt-SB (4), which has a stilbene structure, as a candidate for this purpose, and examined its fluorescence properties in detail. The fluorescence intensity of 4 was remarkably increased in highly viscous solvents and upon binding to hRXRα-LBD, due to suppression of free rotation of the stilbene moiety. Although the relatively low fluorescence intensity and the short fluorescence wavelength of 4 make this compound itself unsuitable for use in RXR binding assay, our findings provide a basis for further structural evolution, which may lead to a derivative that would be suitable for fluorescence assay of RXR binders.

Maternal gut microbiota in pregnancy influences offspring metabolic phenotype in mice.

Antibiotics and dietary habits can affect the gut microbial community, thus influencing disease susceptibility. Although the effect of microbiota on the postnatal environment has been well documented, much less is known regarding the impact of gut microbiota at the embryonic stage. Here we show that maternal microbiota shapes the metabolic system of offspring in mice. During pregnancy, short-chain fatty acids produced by the maternal microbiota dictate the differentiation of neural, intestinal, and pancreatic cells through embryonic GPR41 and GPR43. This developmental process helps maintain postnatal energy homeostasis, as evidenced by the fact that offspring from germ-free mothers are highly susceptible to metabolic syndrome, even when reared under conventional conditions. Thus, our findings elaborate on a link between the maternal gut environment and the developmental origin of metabolic syndrome.

Competitive Binding Assay with an Umbelliferone-Based Fluorescent Rexinoid for Retinoid X Receptor Ligand Screening.

Ligands for retinoid X receptors (RXRs), "rexinoids", are attracting interest as candidates for therapy of type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. However, current screening methods for rexinoids are slow and require special apparatus or facilities. Here, we created 7-hydroxy-2-oxo-6-(3,5,5,8,8-pentamethyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)-2H-chromene-3-carboxylic acid (10, CU-6PMN) as a new fluorescent RXR agonist and developed a screening system of rexinoids using 10. Compound 10 was designed based on the fact that umbelliferone emits strong fluorescence in a hydrophilic environment, but the fluorescence intensity decreases in hydrophobic environments such as the interior of proteins. The developed assay using 10 enabled screening of rexinoids to be performed easily within a few hours by monitoring changes of fluorescence intensity with widely available fluorescence microplate readers, without the need for processes such as filtration.